Fullerenes, Higher Fullerenes, and their Hybrids: Synthesis, Characterization, and Environmental Considerations

This chapter discusses synthesis, characterization, and application of fullerenes, higher fullerenes, and their nanoscale hybrids (NHs). It identifies potential environmental risk of these carbon allotropes when used in energy applications and discusses possible strategies for pursuing green synthesis of these materials. The chapter presents a brief discussion on the major fullerene and higher fullerene production techniques. From production of soot to the formation of individual fullerenes, several characterization methods are employed to determine the composition, morphology, and concentration. Such techniques include mass spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), optical spectroscopy, high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), electron microscopy (EM), etc. The retrieved publications have provided information regarding the various practical applications, which can be generally categorized as follows: solar cells and photovoltaic materials, hydrogen storage materials, and electronic components.