Insights into Electrolyte-Solvent Interactions and SEI Formation for Sustainable Sodium-Ion Battery Operation at Low Temperatures

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) show promise as an alternative to lithium-ion batteries. However, they face performance challenges at ultra-low temperatures (<−40 °C) due to slow Na⁺ transfer kinetics with conventional electrolytes. This limitation restricts their use in extreme environments such as polar regions and outer space. The presented systematic study addresses this challenge by modulating and tailoring the electrolyte composition for SIBs, enabling ultra-low temperature operation down to −110 °C for the first time. The comprehensive molecular dynamic and density functional theory calculations combined with experimental Raman spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance studies of advanced electrolytes provided a deeper mechanistic understanding of the solvation structures and their impact on electrochemical performance. By varying the solvent composition with a combination of tetrahydrofuran and 2-Methyltetrahydrofuran solvents and sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF₆) salt, the freezing point, solubility, and Na⁺ solvation structure of the electrolyte is modulated and studied in detail. The extensive anion engagement in the optimized mix solvent electrolyte facilitated the formation of a stable and inorganic-rich solid electrolyte interphase layer, ensuring low overpotentials and uniform Na⁺ deposition, yielding superior cycling stability. As a result, the developed electrolyte enables SIBs to achieve reversible capacities of around 81 mAh g⁻¹ at −60 °C and around 21 mAh g⁻¹ at −100 °C. These insights may contribute to developing improved energy storage devices suitable for challenging environmental conditions.