Non-stoichiometry Governs the Pathway from Amorphous to Crystalline Calcium Carbonate

The controlled crystallization of calcium carbonate underlies the elaborate architectures of marine corals, the design of biomimetic materials, and the global carbon cycle. Despite its ubiquity, the chemical mechanisms that govern the crystallization of calcium carbonate from its amorphous precursor, amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC), remain elusive, largely due to the difficulty in resolving the structure and chemistry of this transient amorphous state. Here, we use time-lapse photography, image analysis, spatially resolved pH determination, in situ synchrotron pair distribution function (PDF) analysis, and dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to reveal pervasive compositional variability in ACC that underpins its metastability and crystallization. By evaluating the kinetics of the amorphous-to-crystalline transition across different solution chemistries, we demonstrate that ACC is non-stoichiometric and CO₃-deficient. Counterions from the precursor (e.g., NO₃^– from Ca(NO₃)₂) substitute into the ACC network, displacing CO₃ ions and mediating both ACC stability and transformation. Crystallization proceeds through refinement of the stoichiometry toward CaCO₃ and uptake of free CO₃^2– anions. These findings are consistent across a wide range of concentrations and different carbonate sources, explaining the diverse behaviors observed for ACC and providing a chemical framework for controlling calcium carbonate crystallization.